Endre Kiss
Budapest

The Great Conflict in the Modernization
(The Source of the New Problem of the Fatherland)

If we wanted to compile a history of the fatherland’s literature (Begriffsgeschichte), for the time being we would have to look into the one of the „fatherland”. A history of the semantics of fatherland can however use serious insights in the whole post-war history from the „Neue Heimat” as social democratic scandal of flats for ordinary people till Jan Troell’s splendid Swedish film THE NEW FATHERLAND and the EMIGRATION or from the German movie made-for-television FATHERLAND of the eighties till the (realsocialist) fatherland concepts of the real existing socialism. All the more complete such a historical semantics would however be, all the more clearly this wealth would appear for us, which reflexion from the intellectual achievements of the last decades is plainly missing. All the more complete this précis would be, all the more clear it would also however be, that the new semantical variants almost no longer contain these contents made a taboo, with which they were linked before 1945.

Since, the fatherland was made a taboo on two sides. On the one side, it applied constantly as a place of sacred unity of mankind and it can effectively be seen, how rarely tragic conflicts with the own fatherland became objects of higher literary representations. Timon of Athen could search long his brothers and equivalences in space and time. On the other side, as well the national socialist compromises as also the search of intellectual ancestors of the national socialism led to a tabooization of another type, in the context of which the fatherland as the fatherland’s literature have been considered as elements of a secrete tradition. For our time, it is first totally clear, that after 1945 a great quantity of diverse literary and extra-literary phenomena accumulated, which are all linked with a new semantics of „fatherland literature”.

Before we would however come to a detailed analysis of the real, i.e. classical fatherland literature, it must be pointed out, that also the original fatherland literature has its special destiny in the literature politics of the Third Reich. And this destiny was not very different from the one of all orientations, which rightly or not have belonged to the national socialist intellectual arsenal or have been admitted in it. The creative and simultaneously categorizing force of the decree of a party is wanted here: „As all values, which are admirable to the people, even the fatherland can also be represented more pleasant and more trivial or untrue. We can even neglect, and it was always again about business-minded pens, who understood how to turn their knowledge round the importance of the fatherland into hard cash (!). Particularly at times, when the people came back to the fatherland through hopeless labyrinths, shot the business of this people out of the field of the writing high like mashrooms after a warm rain. Here, the hero aspired, in a sudden inspiration, in each third chapter, new forces from the ’maternal earth’ and the book jacket itself smelled already like a fieldsoil. Merely, this smell was not genuine, but causes in the retort greedy (!) calculations. Besides, it becomes astonishing how rapidly these people are able to adapt themselves to every changement. While in summer 1933, the mentioned figures searched still laboriously to manage and organize the amount of the new insights, had already stuck in the tradition every contemporary action porters, which had before sunk in caftan (!), and were formerly black like the night, then shined now blond like Siegfried” 1.

We quoted this text mainly not from the consideration, that the concrete „ideological” reservations in the Third Reich against the genre of the fatherland’s literature were deliberate. We drew the attention on this quotation because the investigation of the real destiny of every literary or artistic orientation, but also of every philosophical current in the Third Reich, leads inevitably to the affirmation of new „ideological” problems, which almost have something to do with the real or only supposed, faked or unfaked „proximity” of a literary or philosophical orientation toward the Third Reich around the year 1933 2.

For a reconstitution of the classical and original fatherland’s literature (Heimatliteratur), two ways are opened for us. One is summarized examplarily in the Hamsun’s analyse of Leo Löwenthal. His method focuses the ideology-critical method of the intellectual marxism in Germany, which became public later as the specific „knowledge-sociological” and „ideology-critical” method of the Francfurt School. The other one, which we consider as meaningful, opens for us on the traces of Otto Bauer’s analyse of the decay of the peasantry in Europe, principally also in Germany and Austria-Hungary and its representation of the penetration of the capitalism (going back to the language of the classical marxism), or of the modernization in the province and in substance also in the agriculture. It is obvious, that this process is behind the fatherland’s literature as its worldly life background.

In Leo Löwenthal’s argumentation, the central motive of the nature in the classical and original fatherland’s literature, is for the time being examined with a strong ideology-critical fine-tooth comb. In this light, the nature appears as a field of the boundless projection: „In the post-liberal ideology of the largest bourgeois classes, the nature plays an excellent role. The town stops building a fantasie space for the dreams erected on luck and power, if it becomes only the annoying quintessence of walls and limited existences...” 3. This first sentence of Löwenthal reveals the size and the simultaneous defects of this exclusively knowledge-sociological interpretation. It becomes clear, that (also) for Löwenthal, the fatherland’s literature appears with also a symptom of an already carried out historical-philosophical and knowledge-sociological analysis: „With the perceptibly increasing irrationality of the life in the reality, it is also the end with the belief in the rationality of the own destiny, that had stamped the liberal ideology its fundamental style”4. According to this global historical-philosophical image, the vision of the analysis is concretized sociologically: „In consideration of the unshiftable troubles, which has brought the ordinary bourgeois existence in its hurry toward success, prestige, possession, safety, a hurry which monotony is not (compensated) through the normally poor results, the immediate intercourse with the nature as entrance in the field of the human freedom appears”5.

This sociological concretization expresses the same way as this method which obviously already reveals as the whole explanation of the problem to investigate. Every relevant element of the later explanation let itself be „derived” as naturally from this ideology-critical and historical-philosophical generalization: „Enjoying the landscape, each sphere is erased at once, there is no longer any mildest remembrance of the involved commerce with the nature in the production, that is insolubly tied with competition, hostility, responsibility, troubles”6.

The concretization is also spread out on the individual: „In the immediate intercourse with the nature, a counter-image emerges (blocked by me – EK) toward the contradictory situation, in which the participation in an increasing active management of the nature is linked with an increasing faint in the management of the personal destiny”7. The diagnosis appears as next step, i. e. the naming of each motivation, which is characteristic for the whole historical situation but also already for the fatherland’s literature and for Knut Hamsun. „The man as dominated being experiences in the nature the simple existence-as such, against which modification through any supercilious powers we are defenceless... The beautiful nature is certainly not revealed from the ressentiment of the petty bourgeoisie...but in this phase, the way toward the natural field is not performed on the run”8. The naming of the social-psychological motives of the „ressentiment” allows – as it has also been the case in other investigations – that the social and political analysis can be further built and the new attitude toward nature (of which the fatherland’s literature is only a symptom and a realization form) can be showed as a consequence of social political situations: „It is the same with the dominated classes with their relation as well with the nature experienced as not worked on as with their relation to the raw experienced nature as wit the one to be worked on: whilst in both situations of their own life, whether favoured or verified, they help simultaneously the created and controlled forms of this life they do not know to strengthen and reinforce”9. The ideology-critical reconstituted position of the type identified and sociologically described in Löwenthal’s analysis stands then consequently also opposite „the real peasant” just in its defined representations: „With the peasants, the disproportion appears between the contribution to the production and the contribution to the consumption, that exists in the industrial working on under the given social forms, neutralized to a large extent... that, what he does, has an evident relation to what he enjoys”10.

It is important to notice, that this very plausible argumentation, facing the horizon of the sixties and seventies, requires a revision. This equivalence, so logical for Löwenthal, between an attitude, full of ressentiment and antimodernist, and the „nature relationship”, must be confronted with the phenomena of the students’ movement and with the green ideologies they entailed, since very clearly a ritually and stimulated „unification with the nature” belonged to a strong constituent of this film production and literature, that we must relate, ideologically or politically, with the New Left. Besides, the thesis „so as, what he does, has an evident relation to what he enjoys”, absolutely applies for this production. The thesis standing behind Löwenthal’s interpretation about the „ressentiment” to be expressed must not be of course withdrawn through the genre of the fatherland’s literature, which contents, as an explanation, of the ressentiment should be confronted however with the latest developments and phenomena (somewhat a „ressentiment” in a sense, that is peculiar of the ideological interest of the petty bourgeoisie at the end of the liberal period. In these classes, „the non-transparency and the uncontrollableness of the social processes have already brought an infinite abundance of fictitious philosophy and sociology” etc...) 11.

Nonetheless, the handling of the ressentiment’s problem reveals a certain partiality (Einseitigkeit) as well with Löwenthal as with his school, or method. Since through the absolute setting of the ressentiment’s thesis, no attitude can be caught in this approach, where a traditionalism or simply an immobilism on certain moral concepts manifests itself without any ressentiment and orientates in the direction of a synthesis between old and new. This will of synthesis, which as well for the intellectuals as also for the everyday life was an unavoidable and trivial problematic, eludes totally this method.

Otto Bauer’s analyses about the penetration of the capitalist relationship in the nature relation as description of the real process, that among others stands also behind the development and articulation of the genre of the fatherland’s literature, appear as productive completion and at the same time also as opposite pole of Löwenthal’s ideology criticism. Otto Bauer’s excellent achievement should however by no means be interpreted as a singular or single project. As (later) behind Leo Löwenthal, there has been a whole school of thinking and of social science, we discover as well behind Otto Bauer a whole school of thinking and politics. It does honour the social democratical thinking during the whole time of the existence of Die Neue Zeit, that has pursued the development in the province, the consequences of the capitalization of the agriculture not only with the highest attention, observed and reflected these phenomena however also from the beginning as independent subjects, mainly as illustrations of extensive radical change processes and of theoretical theses.

Whilst then, the motivation of the reflection of the fatherland’s literature was for the left thinking (presented in our context of Leo Löwenthal) an ideological and psychological one, the same subject reveals, for the older representatives also of the left thinking for a generation, as one of the concrete sociologically, politically and economically identifiable real processes.

Bauer’s analysis shows step by step, that the organization of the modern „factory” destroys the domestic industry, the working structure of the peasantry becomes still more restricted and searches its place among the modern goods producers, or must redefine it 12. As if Otto Bauer himself would have already gone to meet the specific problematic of the emergence of the fatherland’s literature, he becomes absorbed in the modification of the psyche during this unique transformation. As a conclusion, he affirms the following: „The rural population has been uprooted through the capitalism, torn out of the soil, to which it was tied up from the settling down of the population...”13. This characterization coincides with that word for word, what we should name, under all circumstances, as „sujet”, or somewhat more generally, as starting conditions of the fatherland’s literature. His contemporary question can be read also from the descriptive criticism about a product of the fatherland’s literature: „Do we have only to carry out, all that is significant for the national cultural community?”14.

Leo Löwenthal and Otto Bauer are not in our thought process for themselves. Both are of excellent exponents of certain thinking orientations and methods. They are mainly linked (and this link is thematic in our attempt) through their thematic, through the attempt, to represent the modern history under the social point of view in general, but also in particular.

While the main current of the historical development existed effectively in an advance of the rationality, in the modernization, i.e. the abandon of the myths, on the other hand also, the vision imposes, that possibly just this process of the rationalization could have been a reason for the specific atrocities of our century. On the one side, a general suspicion exists then historically, that the crises and shakes of our century come from the failure of organical and effective modernization, or be the expansion of the Modern Age rationality. It seems to us, that these both approaches are unilateral and neither the one nor the other vision of this global universal-historical process is legitimate. Since neither the positive nor the negative attitude toward rationality includes the whole and global problematic, and only in this entirety, of the individualization and emancipation. The abandon of the myths, the rationalization process is namely, without any simultaneity and successively realizing individualization and emancipation, no clear progression. The civilisatory danger, signalized by many, is then not to be related directly and exclusively alone with the Modern Age rationalization, than rather more with the fact, whether altogether with the triumph train of the rationalization also positive steps on the way toward individualization or emancipation have occured or not.

The thematization of the widely spread problem complex of rationalization, modernization, individualization and emancipation only alienates apparently from the field of the literaries and from the same of the fatherland’s literature. It is namely clear, that this most strict literary and literary-historical discussion can only then be raised at a very high level from their recurrent intellectual circles and already existing rigid networks, if the effective problematic of the individualization and the emancipation can be received adequately in this context. Since every modernization, industrialization, i.e. every „rationality”, in Max Weber’s theoretically relevant sense, every „abandon” of traditional life forms has only a sense, if the constant and in course necessary loss of human values can be made up with a compensative substitute of new human contents, i.e. through individualization and emancipation. Even through the general assessment of the modernization (industrialization, rationalization), it must not only concern this phenomenon to investigate independently. It must concern the possibilities of the expansion of individualization and emancipation as true compensation against the destructive tendencies of the complex modernization process to investigate. The true pains, constraints and deficits of the modernization must not be put as the focus, although their articulation alone is already a necessary event against the „existential fixation” of every thinking (Karl Mannheim). We must not interpret modernization, industrialization and rationalization however also as a kitschily way of the progression, in which the sunny end can as automatically make forget the previous pains, already for the reason why all can astonishingly well bear the pain of the others. The right attitude, which must be represented meaningfully also by the interpretation of the fatherland’s literature, consists in the recognition of the world historical process of modernization and industrialization, where the victim of the one side must be compensated through the continuation toward individualization and emancipation on the other side.

It follows that the true problematic of the fatherland’s literature, in our eyes, does not so much consist in the simple connection of this genre of the literature with the phenomenon of the modernization, industrialization or with an already often mentioned global term, with the phenomenon of the Modern Age „rationalization”. The true and real problematic of the fatherland’s literature is settled in the attitude, whether this literature in course or in the context of the inexorable modernization (industrialization and rationalization) party for individualization and emancipation seizes or, however in this course of the triumphing modernization (industrialization and rationalization), is based on traditional and many times overcome attitudes and its defence against these trends does not only contains no commitment toward individualization and emancipation, but also searches to struggle these progresses in the field of the individualization and emancipation, which in this most destructive triumph train of the modernization (industrialization, rationalization), have emerged spontaneously and to the expense of tremendous pains of the transformation, the uprooting and the new start.

In an attempt to determine the notion of individualization, we are regrettably in the same situation as the French poet André Gide, facing the question „who was the best modern French poet of his time”, that answered „unfortunately still Victor Hugo”. Since until today, it is the philosoph Arthur Schopenhauer, who had put the individualization, or the realization of the principium individuationis as midpoint of his philosophy. Because he had done it, led in the negative form and through a negative attitude, his really exact, if not even pioneering preparations are still today very difficult to decipher. To reconstruct appropriately his conception, his negative attitude must be transformed, in the strongest possible way, into a positive one. Doing it, there are then no longer any limit and obstacle to exploit his analysis. He describes the process of the individualization as a process in which the man, already as grown-up, must define and determinate himself and, indeed in all clarity against his own environment and against his own inherited values and attitudes. Later sciences (partly disciplines, which have been founded only after Schopenhauer’s death) got closer to this phenomenon in many ways and however could’nt reach the sharpness of Schopenhauer’s analyses. Since only Schopenhauer thematized the torments and the almost incomparable difficulty level of this process, through which it appeared as the most important task of the individual life, i. e. as the most relevant life task. Just after the insight of the unique importance of the individualization process, Schopenhauer comes however to the decision, that he shrinks from the individualization and insists on a pre-individual human image15.

There is no fundamental new insight to understand sociologically and thereby politically the problematic of the individualization put as a focus by Schopenhauer in such an accurate way, to interpret and to recognize the incomparable relevance of these problematic in the complex of the modernization, the industrialization and thereby in the one of the modern rationalization. This means that the problematic of the individualization also becomes for us the key toward the interpretation of the literary genre of the fatherland's literature. Existence (psyche, individualisation, emancipation) and history (modernisation, industrialisation) go into each other.

In the modern history, three extensive and for the course of the Modern Age crucially important emancipation processes appeared on the scene, namely the Jew's emancipation, the women's emancipation and the workers' emancipation (as the political terminology in the period of the Second International sufficiently proves it). It appears as an equally historical as theoretical question whether there should have been really still a "fourth" or "fifth" emancipation in the Modern Age similar to these three extensive emancipation waves. The extremely limited number of the historically relevant emancipatory processes reminds us however of the insight, that they are also similar in their effective determinations. The shortened "phenomenology" of the emancipation bases on autopoïetic, i.e. self-organizing character of this process, which is of same meaning as the emancipation and distinguishes itself by a constant growing in the participation in the human values. The use of the terminology leant on the German classical idealism ("Gattung”, „menschliches Wesen”, „Gattungswerte”) reminds of the unavoidability to relate permanently the phenomenon of the emancipation with this philosophical orientation. And this does not happen without any inner right and without any legitimization. Out of the fixed growing participation in human values related to definition, belongs also farther to the notion of the emancipation, that we cannot emancipate ourselves "to something" or "to somebody" only where the culture, civilization and sociability status being in sight and to be reached, does not contain only an abstract height, but also a concrete social similarity and thereby a latent group affiliation.

In this mind, the fatherland's literature should investigate in this attempt under a doubled aspect. On the one side, it is reflected as a literature which is inseparably related to a huge civilization transformation of the industrialization and modernization. On the other side, it is examined as a literature, in which apparently an oppositon is formulated against this enormous process. However, this attempt will put this opposition under another magnifying glass. It requires its concrete constitution. It wants to know, whether the opposition perceives positively the individualizing and emancipating qualities against the modernization or the fact that it relates its criticism of the modernization and industrialization to a criticism of individualization and emancipation, our thesis is that this is the case and the mental tenor of the fatherland's literature is directed against the emancipative individualism.

It is our hope that this searching attempt can also integrate in itself the problematic of the so-called "leftist" fatherland's literature and exploit it. The thesis should not be proved speculatively, however also not ideology-critically, but on account of the literary material.

If we seize first the explicitly made values, which formulate on the one hand the representatives of the fatherland's literature and, on the other hand, their critics, it is noticeable, that these values appear without exception in anti-individualizing and anti-emancipative orientation. Waggerl names "sedentarity", "attachment to tradition", "pure attitude of the tribe", "thoroughness of the being" and "confidence" as the fundamental qualities and this confirms the last thesis completely16. Leo Löwenthal has a similar summary of the values in his Hamsun study: "industry and civil servants, sciences and teaching staff, naturalistic writers and liberally governed countries, the café and the corporation, large town and intellectuals, the proletarians and the idea of social reform or even revolution - these are the essential cases in which for Hamsun the modern world consists and what it makes hateful with them"17.

Among these values, the one of the faithfulness takes an almost central position. Different contexts and connotations can be ascribed, of course, also to this value, it gets its true significance however even through its close relation to the problematic of the individualization. Since the emphasis of this value is without this relation not only "meaningless", but also tautologic. The "function" of this value reveals however to us, if the faithfulness is again as an obligation (voluntarily) considered by us to refuse the process of the individualization (and the emancipation). If we somewhat read Weinheber's following lines with these eyes, they receive then a peculiar plasticity and deep dimension: "To whom do we swear? The strong man, / Do we swear first to the leader,/ then to the blood, the country, the empire, / and no faithfulness of ours immediately"18.

Almost literally the same also refers to the value of the cultivation (Züchtung). The cultivation of our "Self", but also the almost natural and no other legitimization needing cultivation contains, more other out of their possible and not always quite ideological "positive" aims, again the clear target direction of the exclusion of every individuationsprocess. Out of a lot of possible examples, Waggerl's following thought would be quoted: " The prerequisite toward cultivation is ... the Nordic farm and inheritance law"19. This statement is extremely treacherous - obviously rather unintentionally than deliberate. Since it is not the cultivation, which becomes a prerequisite to the farm (in this case it would have still a trivial rational sense), but it is the farm which becomes the prerequisite to the cultivation. In this context, the true intention and thereby the attitude against individualization and emancipation becomes transparent.

The industrialization and modernization speeding up the individualizing processes  appear as a constraint. Waggerl's next insight has a key importance for our thesis: "However, out of this direct effect of an industrial impetus, the industry in Germany has still had in the order an indirect destruction of the peasantry; this applies whereever the farmers properly have been forced by the enormous swelling of the various cities, furthermore by mining industry and industrial plants, to leave their old-inherited clod of earth"20. This key importance arises from the fact that here the social transformation process described by Otto Bauer is apparently stated word to word. And, besides, our leading perspective steps in function whether a reflection also includes revealed individualization-and emancipation processes or regard them only as a challenge or a "constraint", which we have to answer with an explicated philosophy of life of the fight of the individualization and the emancipation.

The so widespread motive of the ancestor worship (Ahnenkult) of the fatherland’s literature (as well as in the fatherland's poetry), also has a perhaps unexpected and so far a little notable relation with the problematic of the individualization and the emancipation. Who would perceive, for example, immediately the attitude against every possible individualization in the following ingredient: " Why did you live? To celebrate the high ancestors in your blood/ to apply the life from thee to thy fathers... "21. The ancestor worship has in the thematic area of the fatherland's literature of course also many concretizations-and manifestation forms. Generally, it can be said that all formulations, the eternal laws of every provenance reveal the same objective oriented against individualization and emancipation, since these "eternal" laws, whether we believe or not in them, ruin undoubtedly definitively the scope of the individuals for individualization and emancipation.

The problematic of the woman, of the love and of the family appears in the fatherland's literature also in a way, which points out an analytic result on the problematic of the individualization. And it does it, while one of the biggest insidious dangers is revealed, on a possible, at least no longer to be expelled danger of the individualization of the woman. One of the Grand Masters of the fatherland's literature, Frederick Ludwig Barthel, formulates the following idea: "Mothers are always the same and always there lie the fields / Widely and tolerate the plough. They sleep, you mean ; they take / Her joy in herself and happen ... "22. If we see behind this idea, the fear previously mentioned, this idea gets almost a certain content and a certain rationality. To a certain content, Kolbenheyer's following stanza appears in this context: " I am underdeveloped (rückstaendig), very underdeveloped, / I want that the women be women, / I am as underdevelopped as the nature, / that has provided the women fertile / lap, feeding breasts, instinct / for the family... "23. We were long inclined to see in such formulations "only" the expression of traditional life attitudes. It is to be hoped that the collection of the aspects of the individualization and the emancipation can direct the attention on the essentially more relevant motive of the fear of the individualization and the emancipation of the woman !

Even the not only trivial motive, but also the one of the Führer going back on several sources and therefore the phenomenon of the Führer's cult receives unexpectedly sharp trains in the lighting of the problematic of the individualization, or the emancipation. Since also without the enumeration of really infinitely a lot of examples about the significance of the "guidance" and the "Führer's personality" within the frame of the genre "fatherland's literature" it must become clear a long time before Hitler, that this cult of the Führer and simultaneously the inevitable and desired "being led" contains in itself the crystal-clear exclusion of every possibility of the individualization and emancipation.

It is however not much different with the problematic of the race, which we might consider apparently problem-free - as a clear political irrationalism and psychological relapse. In the context of the individualization and the emancipation which appear indeed as concrete "dangers" in the historical horizon, the thematizations of the "race" appear almost "rational", since this idea is directed not only against the strange race, it is directed with the same importance against these members of the own group, who would still alienate themselves at the end perhaps through individualization and emancipation of this own group. We of course do not want to deny that the thematization of the race in the fatherland's literature anticipates a lot of its later instrumentalizations in the philosophy of the Third Reich. Nevertheless it must become completely clear to us in this sense, that the constant emphasis of this moment also constitutes a natural barrier of the individualization, understood in several dimensions of the word. The true recognition of this idea prevents namely as automatically every individualization. In the context of the "race", Burte states somewhat the following : " ... a most inner wish and desire, to be so and not differently, that here must and want coincide... "24. If we think of this sentence about disappearance of the "will" in "must" the complex of the individualization, in addition, the result cannot be doubtful.

Generally, it can be established that, behind numerous concrete elements of the fatherland's literature and the fatherland's poetry, there is the image of a community (Gemeinschaft) such or such defined in the concrete, which possible separate positive characteristics are far not so relevant as their conscious objective against individualization and emancipation. Barthel describes at a place the "birth of this community" from the condition already of reached steps of the individualization: " Here, the worker ... collided with his destiny and recognized for the first time about all classes, states and contrasts the fate community of all the people". It is necessary to perceive, in which extent the elements of the positive description of these contents are oriented without any exception with extensive consequence against individualization and emancipation. Since the text continues as follows: " The blood had rushed through his veins. However, in this minute the blood enchants and becomes music and hymn, song of praise and supplication. And so he stands there, a blood pillar of holy music (!), and is so glowing and happy that he can die. Showers from the eternity touch his brow." 25. Since how individualization and emancipation can be really concerned if the following insight about the "legitimacies" of the life is somewhat concerned with Josefa Berens-Totenohl: "The life laws of people work, defined and formed, infinitely in time and space, through the same blood"26. If we think through this thought, it becomes soon evident that there is no longer space left for individualization (and emancipation).

Because of this, not only in the various perspectives, but also in the extensive character manifesting dominance of the inividualizations-and emancipation problematic, we meet one of the most striking and without this context unintelligible phenomena of the fatherland's literature and its spiritual environment. It is about the judgement of the proletarian, or of the worker in general. Despite every differently oriented expectation, the shape of the "normal", sometimes already by the labour movement socialized and indoctrinated worker appears not as enemy of the moral concepts represented by the fatherland's literature, although this would have been really necessary not only because of ideological, but also because of explicitly political motives. Our explanation of this mysterious phenomenon hangs together closely with the main thesis of this work. The proletarian applies as no alternative to the vision of the fatherland's literature, because it represents no alternative way in the direction of the individualization or emancipation. This is the reason, why the shape of the worker simply becomes irrelevant for the representatives of the fatherland's literature. We are even often not so far to see the potential ally be in the worker the " small brother " of his human image. This has of course consequences for the fatherland's literature itself, still more important than the effect of the political dimension of this fundamental attitude, which is reflected, first of all, in the fact that the preference of the non-individualizing and not emancipative attitudes in front of the other (individualizing and emancipative) finds - against possible expectations - its clear expression also in the political strategy27. From the sentence of Heinrich Lersch "the father was already poor, you, grandchild, nothing as a prolet”, comes out not only unambiguously that the representatives of the fatherland's literature regard the worker as a "family member", but also the decisive fact that they think  the historically decisive process of the proletarization of the peasantry is reversible and do not give up the hope that, from the proletarized worker can become once again a conscious and effective fighter of the common destiny! In this direction, the following statement of the same poem of Lersch also points out: "And if you were only the despised prolet, nevertheless, / You would then know, a new law emerges" 28.

Even „technics” and "technology" could influence the authors of the fatherland's literature negatively if it served in an unexpected way the individualization-and emancipation process. However, the technology applies as one of the few motives, which offer a clearly other picture in the context of the fatherland's literature in a different way than later in the ideology of the Third Reich. Since in contrast to the later positions, the technology appears in the area of the fatherland's literature also as an instrument with the help of which the individualization-and emancipation processes could again materialize. The following representation of Emil Strauss applies then to us as very authentic, perhaps just because of this authenticity, however, we are hardly able to hold back an ironic if not comic impression: "Former times have secrets and have had secrets, - that the machine is a demon and should be chained up, if we think of it, we let it still race along. The cultural miracle that the business traveller drives with 24 HP and the butcher's boy speeds on the byke, we pay willingly with dust, intensification, impoverishment of our world ... the mob will mechanically make the end of the mankind"29.

The destiny of the achievement appears as an emblem of this logic against individualization and emancipation, or a little bit more generally said, the problematic of the recognition (Anerkennung), because they applied and apply as criteria of the individualization and emancipation carried out in the social area. We have a great number of texts' passages, which paradoxically reverse this ground problematic of the modern world. "Achievement" becomes „capitulation”, we reach the "recognition" also through annihilation of our individuality. Without this insight, the paradoxes also hardly become in Johst's following sentence: " We do not see the life chopped up in working hours and provided with price boards, but we believe in the existence as a whole. We, all, do no longer want to earn (verdienen) on the first line, but serve (dienen) "30. Since the paradox even goes futher. We require the recognition without allowing any individual recognition. We want to remain and to present this faithfulness to oneself as an "achievement" for one's recognition of the public. I want to be recognized, while my aim is a tautological one. This recognition does not involve farther the others at all into this process, I want to be recognized therefore without the others. No wonder that only latent friend-enemy's relations can grow out of this paradoxical vision of the achievement- and recognition problematic.

The deep attachment of the individualization (emancipation) with the complex of the fatherland's literature manifests itself however not only in the various, however always consistently applied moral concepts. The representatives of the fatherland's literature still offer in the most different contexts of their works strategy options for the avoidance of the individualization, they climb up thus also in the practice of the reader very deliberately. Thereby, the character of the political tendency manifests itself in the fatherland's literature.

One of these strategies is the praise of the limited life which limitation just consists in its non individualized (and not emancipated) character: "My life has not run particularly full of fame since then, I have written nothing in books and have thought rarely about the last things, I know only what I must really know (!).As far as it is concerned, the end of the world could be behind my last meadow's fence. Now and then worries torment me, naturally, my life is no tranquil water, God probably loves it when his brooks roar... No reason to show off, the heroes have disappeared for a long time, the clearers and landholders... Came now again a bear trotting over the ditches, so I would hardly probably look for a hatchet... But nevertheless, it moves to me the heart to look over my land..."31. To this phenomenon, a classical author of the fatherland's literature, Knut Hamsun, delivers also plenty  material: " This is a life for which you have no sense. You have your home in the city, yes, and you have fitted it out with knick-knacks and pictures and books; but you have wife and handmaids and hundred issues. And you must be waking and sleeping with the things racing around and never have peace. I have peace. Keep your spiritual property and the books and art and newspapers, keep also your coffee houses and your whiskeys from which it goes off only every time. Here I wander through the forests, and I am well. If you put to me spiritual questions and want to drive me into the corner, I answer thus only that God is the origin and that the people are indeed only little points and fibres in the universe. Farther you have also not come."32

The thematization of the failed individualization belongs to these strategies, but also certainly to the life world and thereby to the real experiences in most cases in the form of the own conversion, which accepts the character of the coming home son. We would gladly set up the thesis, which would be empirically hardly adequate to verify in this extreme generalization for methodic reasons, that even every homecoming should be perhaps understood as a signal of the failed individualization. With Gerhard Schumann we read the following verses: "There I bent over deeply down to the earth down/ And blessed the fruitful and said: / Lost, uprooted, I lay fallow. / I come home, o mother (!), take me again"33. This motive however appears also with Alverdes in a very similar form: " ... I kiss who carries me, the brown furrow, / and saluting, says: See, there I am, / very fast I ardently desired, / bullet, from wishes steeply in all hunted - / ..., nevertheless, jumper already on God-curved soles, / I understand with delight of a child, / that me on hands, nevertheless, the mother rocks!"34.

A strategy toward the thematization of the deepest sitting problematic of the individualization becomes transparent also in the strategies, in which the authors sometimes take up the conceivable most modern pictures and analogies for the maintenance of the fundamental anti-individualizing and anti-emancipative positions. Emil Strauss describes a whole process as a "life dance" in which the "atoms" of the individual soon "combines" from the people-whole, soon again left to ones own resources: " ... (the German people) had certainly suffered a big loss of the most valuable men, but had in every returned brave soldier the guarantee of the present and future, that the people's core was healthy, even if its atoms did not now circle toward one and the same ordering law, but in the meantime upheavaled toward the contradicting impulses and attractions and staggered"35.

Strategically, this procedure has already in advance, for every individualization and emancipation, already in advance the belonging description and explanation ready - these are temporary phenomena which were abolished then again from the healthy "people's core".

The multiple and astonishingly inventive strategies against the complex of the individualization (and of course also of the emancipation) sometimes go to intellectual working models to be taken seriously, which real sense can be developped only in this context. Ernst von Salomon creates directly an historical theory for the German development, with the already mentioned content: " The peculiarity of the German destiny - the integration between two times and two orders ... could be executed only through an emphasized rejection (!) of the bourgeois existence (das Bürgerliche) as of the  strongly perceived falsification of the German substance "36.

Still another and equally consistent strategy for the elimination of the historical and current significance of the individual (and on this basis of the individualization and the emancipation) consists in the fact that the importance of all these moments in the historical and political processes is clearly depreciated, in which only a trace of the individuality, or the individualization and emancipation is to be found. Hans Grimm writes it in the People Without Space: " As if through wage struggles and soil repartitions and socializations within the whole encircled nation more people could live. As if settlement and socialization within an overpopulated country were in a position to multiply food and clothes. As if settlement in Germany was much different than a despair, a new constriction"37. Some authors go indeed so far that a successfully accomplished individualization of the world appears to them as one that has no longer "sense" for the people: "The help does not come finally and in the deepest sense from begging with bank notes of the high foreign currency, but the help comes from the rebirth of a religious community "38.

It also, however, arrives from time to time in the works of the fatherland's literature that the constant tendency of the devaluation of the individual (and of the individualization, or of the emancipation) turns in direct hostility. Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer talks from a "people-denying", " individual collectivism " in the context of an international Europe”39 and Ernst Bertram also considered it appropriate to say the following statement: "... the lively feeling of distrust of our new youth against a certain kind of occidental-humanistic spirituality appears as justified"40.

It has a really noticeable effect, that the authors from the scene of the fatherland's literature can absolutely think that a system of values, or an ideology of the exclusion of the individualization (and emancipation) can be removed from another system of values and another ideology, this must only in the same way preserve the fundamental attitude against individualization in the new form. Edwin Erich Dwinger formulates this attitude as follows: "We must create a new philosophy of life which leads us in the same way (!) to the state like it led once a youth to be the people"41.

A well thought-out "system" of warnings joins with numerous authors of the fatherland's literature to these strategies for the prevention of the acceptance of individualizing and emancipation-conditional attitudes almost ritually. In a poem of Ernst Bertram, who became famous for several reasons, we find options and rules for the "children of the ice" in order they do not lose themselves and the peace of their soul in the south and because of the south. It seems to us that the works can unambiguously prove this in our thesis, because the whole poem is nothing else than a single warning against the danger of the individualization and emancipation: "South is however death. Don’t forget: / You are children of the ice. / Sun kills you beautifully / on rock of silky sea - / move, move!/ Since beauty is beginning of danger / And lies in wait of death. / Is golden arrow in the heart: / " It is accomplished - " / move, move! / you shall not want to breathe as in motion. / you shall not want to walk as to death. / Carry your ice to the south. / Sacrify the blue eye, the bright heart - / move, move!"42.

It is rare, however occurs, that a reflection of own existence, especially the one of the marginality in the course of the constant activity of avoidance of the individualization and the emancipation becomes thematical in a work. Schaefer supplies about that an astonishingly realistic example: "God and eternity, heaven and hell, death and devil are no names for the formed language, which know better and contemptuously smile (!), doubt and mock are more than simplicity and credibility"43. Also Hermann Grimm lets some realistic trains trickle in his representation: "You forgot the cheap hall building with mirrors, with labels, with fanions and smoke, you forgot your city, you forgot the own pettiness"44.

Hermann Burte’s Sonnet to the Ego plays a key roll for the thesis about the incomparable significance of indiv iduation. Not only the author applies as one of the most representative and worthy authors of the genre fatherland's literature45, also the type certainly very rare in the fatherland's literature of the sonnet underlines the importance of this work which is apart - as the conceivable highest exception - directly with the problematic of the individualization and the emancipation. The text of the sonnet is the following:

„Du mein geliebtes und verhasstes Ich,
Du, angebetet, abgelehnt, verstossen,
Geschmaeht von Vielen, die sich wüst erbosen,
Weil du nicht anderswo wurdest einen Strich -

Nein, bliebst, was du gewesen, wenn in Tosen
Des innern Sturms die Mittung brach und wich!
Nichts halte ich zuletzt so fest wie dich
Und möchte mir kein Anderes erlosen.

Wohl hegst du heilig lebig die Gemeinschaft
Der Menschen gleicher Art aus Blut und Boden,
Doch gilt vor Gott nur, was der Mann allein schafft,

Er muss den Urwald seines Wesens roden,
Sich selber treu, bis endlich ihn die Pein rafft.
Wie Krist am Holz und in der Esche Woden.”

Burte formulates this attitude in a transparent way, so that his text can be understood and interpreted completely adequately. His content is expressed in both last stanzas (even more paradoxical is that the first both stanzas could reveal attitudes, which would speak for, in the mentioned sense, the one of the individualization and the emancipation). He turns off the positive sense of the modern individualization and emancipation almost completely, while he confronts the individual apparently completely in the same sense with the "others", as the real individualists did and also do at any time. However, this confrontation has one of the real individualization and emancipation directly opposed objective. Instead of developping positively this ego, fulfilling always with new contents and values and developping it constantly in the direction of the emancipation, Burte defines the task of the individual just in the destruction of his "being", what we might identify as the own control and eradication of the emancipative individualization.

COMMENTS

1 ALEY (1967), 46-47. Text in German: "Wie alle Werte, die dem Volke verehrungswürdig sind, kann auch die Heimat versüsslicht und verniedlicht oder unwahr dargestellt werden. Man kann sogar mit ihr Schindluder treiben, und immer wieder gab es geschaeftstüchtige Schreiber, die ihr Wissen um die Bedeutung der Heimat in klingende Münze (!) umzusetzen verstanden. Besonders in Zeiten, in denen das Volk nach hoffnungslosen Irrgaengen zur Heimat zurückkehrte, schossen die Geschaefte dieser Leute aus dem Felde des Schrifttums hoch wie Pilze nach einem warmen Regen. Da saugte in jaeher Erleuchtung der Held bei jedem dritten Abschnitte neue Kraefte aus der 'mütterlichen Scholle' und selbst der Buchumschlag roch schon wie Ackererde. Nur war dieser Geruch nicht echt, sondern in der Retorte nach raffgierigen (!) Berechnungen erzeugt. Dabei wird erstaunlich, wie rasch sich diese Mannen jedem Wechsel anzupassen vermögen. Waehrend im Sommer 1933 die berufenen Gestalten noch mühsam die Menge der neuen Erkenntnisse zu bewaeltigen und zu ordnen suchten, hatten jene Zeitgenossen ihre Handlunstraeger, die zuvor noch im Kaftan (!) untergingen, schon in die aelteste Tracht gesteckt, und waren sie früher schwarz wie die Nacht, so strahlten sie nunmehr blond wie Siegfried"

2This phenomenon appears in an exemplary form in the destiny of the various philosophical orientations in the Third Reich (s. About it KISS, 1990 und 1982).

3 LÖWENTHAL (1990), 83. - Text in German:"In der nachliberalen Ideologie breitester bürgerlicher Schichten spielt die Natur eine ausgezeichnete Rolle. Die Stadt hört auf, einen Phantasieraum für die auf Glück und Macht gerichteten Traeume zu bilden, wenn sie nur der laestige Inbegriff von Mauern und schmalen Existenzen wird..."

4 IBIDEM. Text in German: "Mit der spürbar zunehmenden Irrationalitaet des Lebens in der Wirklichkeit ist es auch mit dem Glauben an die Rationalitaet des eigenen Schicksals zu Ende, der die liberale Ideologie ihre prinzipiell optimistische Haltung gekennzeichnet hatte" (4).

5 IBIDEM, 83-84. Text in German: "Angesichts der unabwaelzbaren Mühsal, welche die durchschnittliche bürgerliche Existenz in ihrer Hast nach Erfolg, Prestige, Besitz, Sicherheit zu bringen hat, eine Hast, deren Einförmigkeit durch die normalerweise mageren Resultate  nicht ...  wird, erscheint der unmittelbare Verkehr mit der Natur als Eintritt in den Bereich menschlicher Freiheit."

6 IBIDEM,84. -  Text in German: "Im Genuss der Landschaft ist jene Sphaere mit einem Schlage ausgelöscht, es gibt nicht mehr die leiseste Erinnerung an den verwickelten Umgang mit der Natur in der Produktion, welcher unlöslich mit Konkurrenz, Feindseligkeit, Verantwortung, Mühsal verknüpft ist".

7 IBIDEM, 86. - Text in German: "In dem unmittelbaren Verkehr mit der Natur ersteht ein GEGENBILD (Sperrung von mir- E.K.) zu der widerspruchsvollen Situation, in welcher die Teilnahme an einer zunehmenden aktiven Bewaeltigung der Natur mit einer zunehmenden Ohnmacht bei der Bewaeltigung des persönlichen Schicksals verbunden ist."

8 IBIDEM, 87. "Der Mensch als beherrrschtes Wesen erlebt in der Natur das blosse So-Sein, gegen dessen Veraenderung durch überlegenere Maechte man wehrlos ist..Die schöne Natur wird gewiss nicht vom Ressentiment der Kleinbürger entdeckt... Aber in dieser Phase wird der Weg zum natürlichen Bereich nicht auf der Flucht zurückgelegt."

9 IBIDEM, 88.- Text in German: "Es geht den beherrschten Schichten mit ihrer Beziehung zu der als unbearbeitet erlebten Natur genauso wie mit derjenigen zur bearbeiteten: indem sie in beiden Situationen ihr eigenes Leben sei es befördern, sei es bestaetigen, helfen sie zugleich, die von ihnen nicht geschaffenen und kontrollierten Formen dieses Lebens zu verfestigen und zu verstaerken."

10 IBIDEM, 97. - Text in German: "Beim Bauern scheint das Missverhaeltnis zwischen dem Anteil an der Produktion und dem Anteil an der Konsumtion, das in der industriellen Bearbeitung der Natur unter den gegebenen gesellschaftlichen Formen besteht, weitgehend aufgehoben...das, was er tut, hat eine sinnfaellige Beziehung zu dem, was er geniesst."

11 IBIDEM.

12 BAUER (1907), 74

13 IBIDEM. 76.

14IBIDEM

15Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Thomas Mann

16Karl Heinrich Waggerl, Der Bergbauer spricht. in:WEISS-HANISCH (1990),148. (The pitman talks)

17LÖWENTHAL (1990), 123.

18Josef Weinheber, Die deutschen Tugenden im Kriege. in: SAEMTLICHE WERKE. Bd.  4. Salzburg, 1954. 699. f. und LOEWY (1967), 153. (the German Virtues in the War)

19WEISS-HANISCH (1990), 151.

20EBENDA, 150. (Sperrung im Original - E.K.)

21 Hans Friedrich Blunck, Why did you live ? in Blunck, MAHNSPRÜCHE EXHORTATIONS. Iena, 1940. 59. And LÖWY (1967), 66 – Even with this clear anti-individualizing element, it can be considered that the later literary development of the today vision must be reflected upon. In this context, Adam Miczkiewicz’s performance  - THE ANCESTORS – imposes itself, for example, in the pole of the real socialist time, which has become the starting point of larger political resistance activities.

22 Friedrich Ludwig Barthel, About Men and Mothers (!). in : THE NEW LITERATURE. Jg. 39. 1938.379 and LÖWY (1967), 136.

23 Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer, The Bridge. In: THE KOLBENHEYER-BOOK. Karlsbad - Drahowitz und Leipzig, 1937. 182 and LOEWY (1967), 136. Since Löwenthal’s remarks on Hamsun are very representative for the whole genre: „With Hamsun, the women is nur concerned in her real definition and her real luck, if she unites the intimacy of the home and the naturalness of the right life in her function of housewife and mother”. (In German: "Bei Hamsun ist die Frau dann erst bei ihrer eigentlichen Bestimmung und ihrem eigentlichen Glück angelangt, wenn sie die Innerlichkeit des Heims und die Naturhaftigkeit des rechten Lebens in ihrer Funktion als Hausfrau und Mutter vereinigt"). - Soon the problematic of the sexuality is concerned. „A real individual satisfaction seems to be given in the sphere of the sexuality, but it does not seem, that this sensual luck means to be in a definite context with the development of the individuality...” (In German: "Echte individuelle Befriedigung scheint es nur in der Sphaere der Sexualitaet zu geben. Aber nicht, dass diese sinnliches Glück bedeutete, das in einem bestimmten Zusammenhang mit der Entfaltung der Individualitaet staende..." (LÖWENTHAL, 1990. 119 - 122.)

24 Hermann Burte, words to Bartels. In : SEVEN SPEECHES. Strasbourg, 1943. 181 ff. and LOEWY (1967), 165. (not blocked in the original - E.K.)

25 Max Barthel, THE IMMORTAL PEOPLE. Berlin, 1933. 188. Ff and LÖWY (1967), 163.

26 Josefa Berens-Totenohl, THE WOMAN AS CREATOR AND PROTECTRESS OF THE TRADITION. Iena, 1938. 7. and LOEWY (1967), 86.

27This is however a sentence, that on the basis of the reconstitution of materials of the fatherland’s literature and which theoretical background can be formulated. We do not adhere to the decisive other questioning of existing or not existing individualizing and emancipative tendencies of the proletarian workers’ movement and their ideology.

28 Heinrich Lersch, Your day is coming. In : GERMANY MUST LIVE ! Iena, 1941 and LÖWY (1967), 155. There is also by the way a point, to which the exclusively knowledge-sociological interest fails as well with Leo Löwenthal as also with other representatives of this orientation, since it cannot simply categorize this expression with partly sympathetical connotations. No miracle, that Löwenthals must here find refuge curious explanations. One example : „If we remember the ressentiment, with which the Central European Petite Bourgeoisie took into consideration, during its impoverishment in the post-war time, the trade union and political organization of the proletarians, then we understand social-psychologically (!) the favourably acceptance of the portrayal of the proletariat with Hamsun...” LÖWENTHAL (1990), 125. (In German:"Wenn man sich des Ressentiments erinnert, mit dem das mitteleuropaeische Kleinbürgertum waehrend seiner Verelendung in der Nachkriegszeit die gewerkschaftliche und politische Organisation der Proletarier bedacht hat, dann versteht man sozialpsychologisch (') die beifaellige (!) Aufnahme der Schilderung des Proletariats bei Hamsun...")

29 Emil Strauss, LEBENSTANZ. München, 1940. 125.ff. and LOEWY (1967), 126.

30 Hanns Johst, SCHLAGETER. München, 1933. 81 ff. and LOEWY (1967), 161.

31-WEISS – HANISCH (1990), 146.

32 Knut Hamsun, DIE LETZTE FREUDE. Complete Works, Vol. 5. München 291.

33Gerhard Schumann, DIE LIEDER VOM REICH. München, 1943. and LOEWY (1967), 131. – In German: „Da bückte ich          mich tief zur Erde nieder/ Und segnete die fruchtare und sprach: / Verloren, dir entwurzelt, lag ich brach. / Ich komme heim, o Mutter (!), nimm mich wieder."

34 Paul Alverdes, Mutter. In : WESPER (1943), 244.f. - (In German: "...küss ich, die mich traegt, die braune Furche, / und spreche grüssend also: Sieh, da bin ich, / der fortzuschnellen glühend ich begehrte, / Geschoss, von Wünschen steil ins All gejagt - /...doch, Springer schon auf gottgewölbten Sohlen, / begreif ich mit Entzückung eines Kindes, / dass mich auf Haenden doch die Mutter wiege!" )

35Emil Strauss, LEBENSTANZ, a.a.O. 223.f. and LOEWY (1967), 159.

36 Ernst von Salomon, The figure of the German volunteer corps fighter. In : THE BOOK OF THE GERMAN VOLUNTEER CORPS FIGHTER. Berlin, 1938. 12 u. 14. And Löwy (1967), 94.

37 Hans Grimm, VOLK OHNE RAUM. München, 1925. Vol. 2. 618 ff. and LOEWY (1967), 214. (In German: "Als ob durch Lohnkaempfe und Bodenverteilungen und Sozialisierungen innerhalb des ganzen eingekesselten Volkes je mehr Menschen leben könnten. Als ob Siedelung und Sozialisierung innerhalb eines überbevölkerten Landes Nahrung und Kleidung zu vermehren imstanden waere. Als ob Siedelung in Deutschland viel anderes waere als eine Verzweiflung, eine neue Verengung."

38 Hanns Johst, On the new drama. In : OF THE GERMAN POET MISSION IN THE PRESENT. Leipzig, 1933. 209 ff. And LÖWY (1967), 54.

39 Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer, toward the argumentation with Romain Rolland. In : SIX CONFESSIONS ABOUT NEW GERMANY. Hamburg, 1933. 33 f. And Löwy (1967), 87. We however often meet the „solution” of the individualization- and emancipation problematic, that the clear removed contents of the individualization and emancipation of the individual and one of the perspectives of this thinking positively assessed were stipulated. This occurs examplarily in a poem of Paul Ernst :”... understand, people, and apprehend God’s plan : / He does not want that you remain in the commons ; / He touches you with hard hands,/that your will is always higher” (Paul Ernst, Unpublished from the  „Emperor’s book”. In: THE NEW LITERATURE, Jg.3. 1936. And Löwy (1967), 107. (In German: "...Verstehe, Volk, und fasse Gottes Plan: / Er will nicht, dass du im Gemeinen bleibts; / Mit harten Haenden fasst er dich an, / Dass deinen Willen immer höher treibst.")

40Ernst Bertram, Possibilities of the Classical Age. In : GERMAN FIGURES. Leipzig, 1935. 305 ff. And LÖWY (1967), 58.

41Edwin Erich Dwinger, DIE LETZTEN REITER. Jena, 1941. 178 f. and LOEWY (1967), 56.

42Ernst Bertram, DAS NORNENBUCH. Leipzig, 1925. 13. and LOEWY (1967), 92.

43Wilhelm Schaefer, WIDER DIE HUMANISTEN. München, 1943. 20. and LOEWY (1967), 59.

44Hermann Grimm, VOLK OHNE RAUM. München, 1926. 283.f. and LOEWY (1967), 62.

45About the significance of Burte in the whole genre of the fartherland’s literature s. HARTUNG (1983).

46 Hermann Burte, to the Ego. In : ANKER AM RHEIN. Leipzig, 1938.

LITERATURE

Aley, Peter, YOUTH LITERATURE IN THE THIRD REICH. Documents und comments. With a preface of Klaus Doderer. Gütersloh, 1967.

Bauer, Otto, THE NATIONALITIES’ QUESTION AND THE SOCIAL DEMOCRACY. Wien, 1907.

Hartung, Günter, LITERATURE AND AESTHETICS OF THE GERMAN FASCISM. Berlin, 1983.

Kiss, Endre, The release from the myths and the necessity of the emancipation. In : Gerlich, P. - Glass, K. - Serloth, B. (Hg.), CENTRAL EUROPEAN MYTHS AND REALITIES. Implementations - Significances – Locations. Wien - Torun, 1996.

Kiss, Endre, The position of Nietzsche’s interpretation in Martin Heidegger’s Assessment of the role and the destiny in the Third Reich. in: ABOUT HEIDEGGER’S PHILOSOPHICAL ACTUALITY. Vol 1: Philosophy and Politics. Published by D. Papenfuss and Otto Pöggeler. Frankfurt/Main, 1990. 425-440.

Kiss, Endre, Fasizmus és irodalom. In : NAGYVILÁG, Nr. 7, 1985.1093-1095.

Kiss, Endre, Nietzsche, Baeumler or the possibility of a positive political metaphysics. in: ANNALES UNIVERSITATIS SCIENTIARUM BUDAPESTIENSIS DE ROLANDO EÖTVÖS. Sectio Philosophica et Sociologica, Vol. 16. Budapest, 1982. 157-175.

Loewy, Ernst, LITERATURE UNDER SWASTIKA. The Third Reich and its Poetry. A documentation with a preface of Hans-Jochen Gamm. Frankfurt/Main, 1967

Löwenthal, Leo, Knut Hamsun, in : DECLINE OF DEMONOLOGISTS. Studies about Jews, Antisemitism and fascist spirit. Leipzig, 1990. (First year of publicatin of the essay : 1937, written in 1934).

Schopenhauer, Arthur, THE WORLD AS WILL AND IDEOLOGY.

Weiss, Walter - Hanisch, Ernst (Publisher), VERMITTLUNGEN. Texts und contexts of the Austrian literature and history in the XXieth century. Salzburg - Vienna, 1990.

Wesper, Will (Publisher), THE HARVEST OF THE PRESENT. Today German poetry. 3rd edition Ebenhausen bei München, 1943.